Anglo-japanese Alliance Information
The first Anglo-Japanese Alliance (日英同盟, Nichi-Ei Dōmei?) was signed in London at what is now the Lansdowne Club,[1] on January 30, 1902, by Lord Lansdowne (British foreign secretary) and Hayashi Tadasu (Japanese minister in London). A diplomatic milestone for its ending of Britain's splendid isolation, the alliance was renewed and extended in scope twice, in 1905 and 1911, before its demise in 1921. It officially terminated in 1923.
Contents |
Motivations and reservations
Hayashi Tadasu, Japanese signatory of the allianceThe possibility of an alliance between Great Britain and Japan had been canvassed since 1895, when Britain refused to join the triple intervention of France, Germany and Russia against the Japanese occupation of the Liaotung peninsula. While this single event was an unstable basis for an alliance, the case was strengthened by the support Britain had given Japan in its drive towards modernisation and their cooperative efforts to put down the Boxer Rebellion. Newspapers of both countries voiced support for such an alliance; in the UK, Francis Brinkley of The Times and Edwin Arnold of the Telegraph were the driving force behind such support, while in Japan the pro-alliance mood of politician Okuma Shigenobu stirred the Mainichi and Yomiuri newspapers into pro-alliance advocacy. The 1894 Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation had also paved the way for equal relations and the possibility of an alliance.
In the end, the common interest truly fueling the alliance was opposition to Russian expansion. Negotiations began when Russia began to move into China. Nevertheless, both countries had their reservations. The UK was cautious of abandoning its policy of 'splendid isolation,' wary of antagonizing Russia, and unwilling to act on the treaty if Japan were to attack the United States. There were factions in the Japanese government that still hoped for a compromise with Russia, including the highly powerful political figure Itō Hirobumi, who had served four terms as Prime Minister of Japan. It was thought that friendship within Asia would be more amenable to the USA, which was uncomfortable with the rise of Japan as a power. Furthermore, the UK was unwilling to protect Japanese interests in Korea and likewise the Japanese were unwilling to support Britain in India.
Hayashi and Lord Lansdowne began their discussions in July 1901, and disputes over Korea and India delayed them until November. At this point, Itō Hirobumi requested a delay in negotiations in order to attempt a reconciliation with Russia. He was mostly unsuccessful, and Britain expressed concerns over duplicity on Japan's part, so Hayashi hurriedly re-entered negotiations in 1902.
Terms of the 1902 treaty
Punch cartoon (1905) accompanied by a quote from Rudyard Kipling that appeared in the British press after the treaty was renewed in 1905 illustrates the positive light that the alliance was seen in by the British public.The treaty contained six articles:
Article 1
- The High Contracting parties, having mutually recognized the independence of China and Korea, declare themselves to be entirely uninfluenced by aggressive tendencies in either country, having in view, however, their special interests, of which those of Great Britain relate principally to China, whilst Japan, in addition to the interests which she possesses in China, is interested in a peculiar degree, politically as well as commercially and industrially in Korea, the High Contracting parties recognize that it will be admissible for either of them to take such measures as may be indispensable in order to safeguard those interests if threatened either by the aggressive action of any other Power, or by disturbances arising in China or Korea, and necessitating the intervention of either of the High Contracting parties for the protection of the lives and properties of its subjects.
Article 2
- Declaration of neutrality if either signatory becomes involved in war through Article 1.
Article 3
- Promise of support if either signatory becomes involved in war with more than one Power.
Article 4
- Signatories promise not to enter into separate agreements with other Powers to the prejudice of this alliance.
Article 5
- The signatories promise to communicate frankly and fully with each other when any of the interests affected by this treaty are in jeopardy.
Article 6
- Treaty to remain in force for five years and then at one years' notice, unless notice was given at the end of the fourth year.[2]
Articles 2 and 3 were most crucial concerning war and mutual defence.
The treaty laid out an acknowledgement of Japanese interests in Korea without obligating the UK to help should a Russo-Japanese conflict arise on this account. Japan was not obligated to defend British interests in India.
Although written using careful and clear language, the two sides understood the Treaty slightly differently. The UK saw it as a gentle warning to Russia, while Japan was emboldened by it. From that point on, even those of a moderate stance refused to accept a compromise over the issue of Korea. Extremists saw it as an open invitation for imperial expansion.
Renewal in 1905 and 1911
Toyama Mitsuru honours Rash Behari BoseThe alliance was renewed and extended in scope twice, in 1905 and 1911. This was partly prompted by British suspicions about Japanese intentions in South Asia. Japan appeared to support Indian nationalism, tolerating visits by figures such as Rash Behari Bose. The July 1905 renegotiations allowed for Japanese support of British interests in India and British support for Japanese progress into Korea. By November of that year Korea was a Japanese protectorate, and in February 1906 Itō Hirobumi was posted as the Resident General to Seoul. At the renewal in 1911, Japanese diplomat Komura Jutarō played a key role to restore Japan's tariff autonomy.
Effects
The Meiji Emperor receiving the Order of the Garter in 1906, as a consequence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The Emperor, to this date, is the only non-European member of the Order.The alliance was announced on February 12, 1902.[3] In response, Russia sought to form alliances with France and Germany, which Germany declined. On March 16, 1902, a mutual pact was signed between France and Russia. China and the United States were strongly opposed to the alliance. Nevertheless, the nature of the Anglo-Japanese alliance meant that France was unable to come to Russia's aid in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 as this would have meant going to war with Britain.
Japanese armoured cruiser Nisshin of the Imperial Japanese Navy, in the Mediterranean (Malta, 1919).The alliance's provisions for mutual defense prompted Japan to enter World War I on the British side. Japan attacked the German base at Tsingtao in 1914 and forced the Germans to surrender (see Siege of Tsingtao). Japanese officers aboard British warships were casualties at the Battle of Jutland in 1916.[4] In 1917, Japanese warships were sent to the Mediterranean and assisted in the protection of allied shipping near Malta from U-boat attacks; there is a memorial there to the sailors who fell. The Treaty also made possible the Japanese seizure of German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator during WWI, a huge boon to Japan's imperial interests.
The Peacock Skirt, by Aubrey Beardsley, shows significant Japanese influenceThe alliance formed the basis for positive cultural exchange between Britain and Japan. Japanese educated in the UK were able to bring new technology to Japan, such as advances in ophthalmology. British artists of the time such as James McNeill Whistler, Aubrey Beardsley and Charles Rennie Mackintosh were heavily inspired by Japanese kimono, swords, crafts and architecture.
Limitations
There remained strains on Anglo-Japanese relations during the years of the alliance. One such strain was the racial question. Although originally a German notion, the Japanese perceived that the British had been affected by idea of Yellow Peril, on account of their recalcitrance in the face of Japanese imperial success. This issue returned at Versailles after WWI when the UK sided with the U.S. against Japan's request of the addition of a racial equality clause, proposed by Prince Kinmochi Saionji. The racial question was difficult for Britain because of its multi-ethnic empire.
Another limitation to the alliance was the economic relationship between Britain and Japan. Despite Japan's successful modernisation and growing military power, British banks continued to overestimate the risk involved in investments in Japan. Particularly insulting was the terms on which loans were issued to Japan, ranking them as equal to countries such as Egypt, Turkey and China.[citation needed]
Demise of the treaty
The alliance was viewed as an obstacle already at the Paris peace conference of 1919-1920. On July 8, 1920, the two governments issued a joint statement to the effect that the alliance treaty "is not entirely consistent with the letter of that Covenant (of the League of Nations), which both Governments earnestly desire to respect".[5]
The demise of the alliance was signaled by the 1921 Imperial Conference, in which leaders from throughout the British Commonwealth convened to determine a unified international policy.[6] One of the major issues of the conference was the renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The conference began with all but Canadian Prime Minister Arthur Meighen supporting the immediate renewal of an alliance with Japan. The prevailing hope was for a continuance of the alliance with the Pacific power, which could potentially provide security for Commonwealth interests in the area.[7] The Australians feared that it could not fend off any advancements from the Japanese navy, and desired a continuance to build up naval resources for a possible future conflict with the fear that an alliance with the United States in a state of post-war isolationism would provide little protection.[8] Meighen, fearing that a conflict could develop between Japan and the United States, demanded that the Commonwealth remove itself from the treaty to avoid being forced into a war between the two nations. The rest of the delegates agreed that it was best to court America and try to find solution that the American government would find suitable, but only Meighen called for the complete abrogation of the treaty.[9] The American government feared that the renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance would create a Japanese dominated market in the Pacific, and close China off from American trade.[10] These fears were elevated by the news media in America and Canada, which reported alleged secret anti-American clauses in the treaty, and advised the public to support abrogation.[11] The press, combined with Meighen's convincing argument of Canadian fears that Japan would attack Commonwealth assets in China, caused the Imperial Conference to put the alliance on the shelf, where it would remain.[12] The Conference communicated their desire to potentially leave the alliance to the League of Nations, which stated that the alliance would continue, as originally stated with the leaving party giving the other a twelve month notice of their intentions.[13]
The Commonwealth had decided to sacrifice its alliance with Japan in favor of good will with the United States, yet it desired to prevent the expected alliance between Japan and either Germany or Russia from coming into being.[14] Commonwealth delegates convinced America to invite several nations to Washington to participate in talks regarding Pacific and Far East policies, specifically naval disarmament.[15] Japan came to the Washington Naval Conference with a deep mistrust of Britain, feeling that London no longer wanted what was best for Japan.[16] Despite the growing rift, Japan joined the conference in hopes of avoiding a war with the United States.[17] The Pacific powers of the United States, Japan, France, and Great Britain would sign the Four-Power Treaty, and adding on various other countries such as China to create the Nine-Power Treaty. The Four Powers Treaty would provide a minimal structure for the expectations of international relations in the Pacific, as well as a loose alliance without any commitment to armed alliances.[18] The Four Powers Treaty at the Washington Conference made the Anglo-Japanese Alliance defunct in December, 1921; however, it would not officially terminate until all parties ratified the treaty on August 17, 1923.[19] At that time the Alliance was officially terminated, as per Article IV in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaties of 1902 and 1911.[20] The distrust between the Commonwealth and Japan, as well as the manner in which the Anglo-Japanese Alliance concluded are credited by many scholars, as being leading causes to Japan's involvement in World War Two.[21]
Notes
| Constructs such as ibid. and loc. cit. are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (), or an abbreviated title. |
- ^ "a home away from home - since 1935". The Lansdowne Club. http://www.lansdowneclub.com/. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
- ^ Saturday, 22 August 2009 Michael Duffy (2009-08-22). "First World War.com - Primary Documents - Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 30 January 1902". google.com. http://google.com/search?q=cache:045M33xua0EJ:www.firstworldwar.com/source/anglojapanesealliance1902.htm+anglo-japanese+alliance&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
- ^ Sydney Morning Herald, 13 February 1902.
- ^ 1916 newspaper casualty lists, Toronto Public Library.
- ^ Text of the statement in League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1, p. 24.
- ^ Vinson, J. C. "The Imperial Conference of 1921 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance." Pacific Historical Review 31, no. 3 (1962): 258
- ^ Vinson, J. C. "The Imperial Conference of 1921 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance," 258.
- ^ Brebner, J. B. "Canada, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Washington Conference." Political Science Quarterly 50, no. 1 (1935): 52
- ^ Vinson, J. C. "The Imperial Conference of 1921 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance." Pacific Historical Review 31, no. 3 (1962): 257
- ^ Spinks, Charles N. "The Termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance." Pacific Historical Review 6, no. 4 (1937): 324
- ^ Ibid, 326.
- ^ Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908-23. (London: The Athlone Press, 1972), 334
- ^ Ibid, 337.
- ^ Kennedy, Malcolm D. The Estrangement of Great Britain and Japan. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), 54
- ^ Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 381.
- ^ Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 354.
- ^ Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 381
- ^ Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 378.
- ^ Nish, Ian H. Alliance in Decline, 383.
- ^ Spinks, Charles N. "The Termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance." Pacific Historical Review 6, no. 4 (1937): 337
- ^ Kennedy, Malcolm D. The Estrangement of Great Britain and Japan. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), 56
See also
References
- Beasley, W. G. (1962). The Modern History of Japan. Boston: Frederick A. Praeger. ASIN B000HHFAWE (cloth) -- 10-ISBN 0-030-37931-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-030-37931-4 (paper)
- Brebner, J. B. "Canada, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Washington Conference." Political Science Quarterly 50, no. 1 (1935): 45-58.
- Daniels, Gordon, Janet Hunter, Ian Nish, and David Steeds. (2003). Studies in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902-1923): London School of Economics (LSE), Suntory and Toyota International Centres for Economics and Related Disciplines (STICERD) Paper No. IS/2003/443: Read Full paper (pdf) -- May 2008
- Kennedy, Malcolm D. The Estrangement of Great Britain and Japan. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969.
- Lister-Hotta, Ayako, Ian Nish, and David Steeds. (2002). Anglo-Japanese Alliance: LSE STICERD Paper No. IS/2002/432: Read Full paper (pdf) -- May 2008
- Nish, Ian Hill. (1972). Alliance in Decline: A Study in Anglo-Japanese Relations 1908-23. London: Athlone Press. 10-ISBN 0-485-13133-1; 13-ISBN 978-0-485-13133-8 (cloth)
- __________. (1966). The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The diplomacy of two island empires 1894-1907. London: Athlone Press. [reprinted by RoutledgeCurzon, London, 2004. 10-ISBN 0-415-32611-7; 13-ISBN 978-0-415-32611-7 (paper)]
- O'Brien, Phillips Payson. (2004). The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902-1922. London: RoutledgeCurzon. 10-ISBN 0-415-32611-7; 13-ISBN 978-0-415-32611-7 cloth)
- Satow, Ernest and George Alexander Lensen. (1968). Korea and Manchuria between Russia and Japan 1895-1904: The Observations of Sir Ernest Satow, British Minister Plenipotentiary to Japan (1895-1900) and China (1900-1906). Tokyo: Sophia University Press/Tallahassee, Florida: Diplomatic Press. ASIN B0007JE7R6; ASIN: B000NP73RK
- Spinks, Charles N. "The Termination of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance." Pacific Historical Review 6, no. 4 (1937): 321-340.
- Vinson, J. C. "The Imperial Conference of 1921 and the Anglo-Japanese alliance." Pacific Historical Review 31, no. 3 (1962): 257-266.
External links
- Main points of the Anglo-Japanese agreements - by FirstWorldWar.com
- Text of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 (bilingual)
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||
Categories: Japan – United Kingdom relations | Military alliances involving the United Kingdom | Military alliances involving Japan | 1902 in the United Kingdom | 1902 in Japan | Treaties concluded in 1902 | Treaties entered into force in 1902 | 20th-century military alliances | Treaties of the Empire of Japan
|